Arfianto Purbolaksono, M.I.P

Research and Program Manager at The Indonesian Institute, Center for Public Policy Research (TII)

The Reform Era was marked by the resignation of President Soeharto from the seat of government on May 21 1998. Suharto’s position was replaced by his deputy, namely Baharuddin Jusuf Habibie. President BJ Habibie then formed a reform government and stated to speed up the general elections (elections) which were supposed to be held in 2003 to 1999. This policy was followed by policies regarding party regulations and preparations for holding elections.

The establishment of Law No. 2 of 1999 concerning political parties opens up broad opportunities for the emergence of political parties and developing a multi-party system in Indonesia. There are 141 political parties registered with the Department of Justice. Although only 48 political parties passed the selection by the Preparatory Committee for the Establishment of the General Election Committee (P3KPU) or Team Eleven (tirto.id, 25/6/2018). This is very different from what happened during the New Order, when there were only two parties and one Golongan Karya.

Looking at the number of political parties participating in the elections, competition during the 1999 election campaign was very sharp. Political parties are competing for influence in the campaign. All means are used, such as mass mobilization campaigns, putting up billboards, putting up banners, and placing advertisements in mass media, both print and electronic.

The role of the media in election campaigns is very important. There is almost no political party that does not use media in party outreach and campaigns. In several political parties, the largest costs and budgets are allocated for advertising spending in the media. Because the media is considered an effective and massive means of informing and introducing a party and its programs. Apart from the party’s vision and mission, of course the figures of candidates, both presidential and vice presidential candidates and legislative member candidates from each party, have emerged and adorned the faces of mass media, both electronic and print (Mustofa, 2013).

History of the Use of Television Advertising as a Campaign Tool in Indonesia

Campaigns via television have had quite a positive impact in Indonesia . Television campaigns are quite effective in reducing the number of violence and casualties that often occur in every campaign, especially those that rely on mass marches. Comparisons between elections 1997, 1999, 2004, for example, show a decrease in the number of fatalities which is quite drastic. The death toll in the election 1997 as many as 327 people, while the election 1999 when mass media started to be used as a campaign event, 19 people were killed, and 2004 election as many as 31 people. This change in campaign methods shows the positive side of the existence of mass media in election campaigns in Indonesia (Minanto, 2014) .

In Indonesia, during the New Order era, campaigning and placing (political) advertisements on television forbidden. This is regulated in the Decree of the Minister of Information Number 012/Kep/Menpen/1997 dated 3 February 1997. Article 11 (4) states that Election Contesting Organizations (OPP) are prohibited from campaigning in the form of advertising and/or sponsoring events via radio and/or television broadcasts. A similar prohibition is also contained in the Decree of the Minister of Home Affairs No. 7 of 1997 (Danial, 2009). In its development, starting with the 1999 election, political campaigns in the mass media became an undeniable trend (Minanto, 2014).

However, the campaign carried out through advertising in the mass media is not yet regulated in Law No. 3 of 1999 concerning General Elections. However, based on the findings of Sri Andayani’s (2002) thesis on “Profile of Political Advertising Broadcasts During the 1999 Election Campaign”, it was stated that the regulation of campaign advertisements was only carried out by television stations. These settings contain the display format and frequency.

Campaign arrangements through advertising in the mass media were only implemented in the 2004 elections. This is stated in the Law of the Republic of Indonesia No. 12 of 2003 concerning the General Election of Members of the People’s Representative Council, Regional Representative Council and Regional People’s Representative Council. Article 73 paragraph 1 states that electronic media and print media provide the same opportunity for election participants to convey election campaign themes and materials. Then in paragraph 2 it is stated that electronic media and print media are obliged to provide the same opportunity to election participants to place election advertisements in the context of the campaign.

Furthermore, in the 2009 elections until now, the regulation of campaigns through mass media has been regulated in more detail compared to the 2004 elections. This is based on Law No. 10 of  2008 concerning the General Election of Members of the People’s Representative Council, Regional Representative Council and Regional People’s Representative Council; Law No. 42 of 2008 concerning General Election of President and Vice President; Law No. 8 of 2012 concerning General Election of Members of the People’s Representative Council, Regional Representative Council, and Regional People’s Representative Council.

Then, Law No. 7 of 2017 concerning General Elections. These regulations also regulate the authority of the Indonesian Broadcasting Commission and the Press Council to supervise the reporting, broadcasting and advertising of election campaigns carried out by broadcasting institutions or print mass media. Finally, it regulates sanctions against broadcasting institutions or print mass media that violate the rules mentioned above.

Television Advertising Expenditures in Elections in the Reform Era

Next, if we look at the costs of spending on political advertising in the mass media during general elections in the Reform Era. The development of political party expenditure related to campaign advertising costs in each election continues to experience increase, especially the cost of campaign advertising via television. In the 1999 elections, the Golkar Party was the party that spent the most on political advertising on television. At that time, the Golkar Party spent IDR13.29 Billion. The amount of advertising expenditure disbursed by the Golkar Party was followed by PDI-P advertising expenditure in second place with IDR7.47 Billion. After that, PKB and PAN followed, each of which spent IDR3.12 Billion and IDR2.4 Billion. Then the last one is PPP with IDR800 million (Minanto, 2014).

Political Party Advertising Expenditures on Television in the 1999 Election

Political parties	Advertising Spending on Television
Golkar Party	IDR13.29 Billion
PDI-P	IDR7.47 Billion
CLA	IDR3.12 Billion
PAN	IDR2.4 Billion
PPP	IDR800 Million

Source: Nielsen Media Research (NMR) (in Minanto, 2014)

In 2004, political parties’ spending on advertising on television crept up. PDI-P, which at that time was the ruling party, spent IDR32.9 billion for advertising expenditure for the 2004 election campaign. This was followed by the Golkar Party with IDR21.7 Billion. After that there were PAN and Democrats who each spent IDR 6.8 billion and IDR 6.1 Billion. Then the other two parties, namely PPP and PKB, each spent IDR5.1 Billion and IDR 4.4 Billion (Minanto, 2014).

Political Party Advertising Expenditures on Television in the 2004 Election

Political parties	Television Advertising Spending
PDI-P	IDR32.9 Billion
Golkar Party	IDR21.7 Billion
PAN	IDR6.8 Billion
Democrat	IDR6.1 Billion
PPP	IDR5.1 Billion
CLA	IDR4.4 Billion

Source: Nielsen Media Research (NMR) (in Minanto, 2014).

In the 2009 Election, based on an advertising survey conducted by the Nielsen Company during July 2008-April 2009, it was found that the Golkar Party spent IDR277.292 Billion, followed by the Democratic Party with IDR 214, 439 Billion. Next in third place is the Gerindra Party which issued IDR151, 211 Billion. After that, PDI-P was in fourth place with advertising expenditure of IDR102, 891 Billion. In fifth and sixth place are PKS and PAN who spent IDR74.647 billion and IDR71 Billion. Then the two lowest parties, namely Hanura and PPP, each spent IDR44.796 Billion and IDR40.349 Billion.

Political Party Advertising Spending on Television in the 2009 Election

Political parties	Television Advertising Spending
Golkar Party	IDR277.292 Billion
Democrat	IDR214.439 Billion
Gerindra	IDR151.211 Billion
PDIP	IDR102.891 Billion
MCC	IDR74.647 Billion
PAN	IDR71 Billion
Hanura	IDR44.796 Billion
PPP	IDR40.349 Billion

Source: viva.co.id, 29 April 2009.

In the 2014 elections, based on data from Sigi Kaca Pariwara, political party advertising spending on television during the open campaign for the legislative general election (pileg) reached IDR340 Billion. The expenditure is calculated from 16 AD – April 5 2014. Of the advertising expenditure spent by political parties, the largest was spent by the People’s Conscience Party (Hanura), which reached IDR70.5 billion. The second largest advertising expenditure was spent by the Democratic Party with funds spent amounting to IDR56 billion. The third position is occupied by the National Mandate Party (PAN) with expenditure of IDR43.8 billion. Fourth position is occupied by Golkar with advertising spending during the open campaign of IDR39.8 billion, and fifth by PDI Perjuangan IDR33.5 billion.

Political Party Advertising Spending on Television in the 2014 Election

Political parties	Television Advertising Spending
Hanura	IDR70.5 Billion
Democrat	IDR56.8 Billion
PAN	IDR43.8 Billion
Golkar	IDR39.88 Billion
PDIP	IDR33.58 Billion
Nasdem	IDR33.28 Billion
Gerindra	IDR26.49 Billion
CLA	IDR20.68 Billion
PPP	IDR9.69 Billion
MCC	IDR4.93 Billion
PKPI	IDR3.17 Billion
UN	IDR400 Million

Source: Kompas.com (11/04/2014).

In the 2019 Election, based on Adstensity television advertising (TV) monitoring data published by PT Sigi Kaca Pariwara, it shows that total advertising expenditure on 13 national TV stations in the 2019 Election open campaign reached IDR602.98 Billion with a total of 14,234 television advertisements (tvc). Perindo holds the largest advertising spend. The party, which was founded four years ago, spent IDR85.58 Billion on advertising on television. More than half of the advertising expenditure (IDR67.78 Billion) was used on three television stations, namely RCTI, MNC TV and Global TV. The founder and General Chair of Perindo is Hary Tanoesoedibjo, owner of the MNC Group media network (RCTI, MNC TV, Global TV).

The party with the second largest advertising expenditure was the Indonesian Solidarity Party (PSI) which spent IDR45.20 Billion. According to Adstensity, PSI is recorded as having advertised on 13 private and national television stations. The third party, there is the People’s Conscience Party (Hanura), which spent IDR42.04 Billion. The Greater Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra) is the party that spends the least money on television advertising. From March 24 to April 13, Gerindra only spent IDR7.73 Billion on advertising on television. The Gerindra Party’s advertising spending is only less than the United Development Party (PPP) with spending of IDR13 Billion and the Crescent Star Party with spending of IDR14.06 Billion.

Political Party Advertising Spending on Television in the 2019 Election

Political parties	Television Advertising Spending
Perindo	IDR85.58 Billion
PSI	IDR45.20 Billion
Hanura	IDR42.04 Billion
Golkar	IDR36.99 Billion
Nasdem	IDR31.88 Billion
Garuda	IDR23.91 Billion
CLA	IDR23.62 Billion
PDIP	IDR23.14 Billion
Democrat	IDR21.17 Billion
PAN	IDR19.25 Billion
PKPI	IDR15.77 Billion
MCC	IDR14.81 Billion
Create	IDR14.39 Billion
UN	IDR14.06 Billion
PPP	IDR13 Billion
Gerindra	IDR7.73 Billion

Source: tirto.id (4/16/2019).

Based on the data above, it can be seen that there are dynamics of increases and decreases in total campaign advertising expenditure on television by political parties during elections in Indonesia during the Reform Era. The largest advertising expenditure occurred in the 2009 elections when it reached IDR976 Billion. Next in second place were the 2019 elections with IDR603 Billion and the 2014 elections with IDR340 Billion.

Trend in Total Campaign Advertising Spending on Television in

Elections 1999 – 2019 (in IDR Billion)

Source: Processed from various sources.

Television Advertising Spending Does Not Guarantee Votes in Elections

Reflecting on the results of the elections from 1999 to 2019, high campaign advertising spending does not guarantee the election of political parties in several elections in Indonesia. In the 1999 elections, the Golkar Party was the party with the largest advertising expenditure but was only in second place after the PDI Perjuangan which won the first election in the reform era. In the 2004 elections, PDI Perjuangan, as the ruling party at that time, was the party that spent the most, but lost to the Golkar Party in winning voters’ votes. Based on the results of a survey of 1,200 respondents in 32 provinces on 9-15 April 2004, PDI-P campaign advertisements on television were the most watched, around 56 percent. But, apparently, it was only able to increase the PDI-P’s vote share from 12.6 percent in November 2003 to 18.5 percent in April 2004. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party, whose advertisements were only watched by 2.8 percent of respondents, as well as the PKS, 2.6 percent, in fact the vote share increased greatly (Pithaloka, 2006).

Next, in the 2009 elections, the Golkar Party was the party that spent the most on television advertising, but lost to the Democratic Party. In the 2009 Election, a survey by the Center for Political Studies, Department of Political Science, FISIP, University of Indonesia (Puskapol UI) of 2,077 respondents on March 13-20 2009, found that of the three types of mass media, television was the media most frequently accessed by the public. This can be seen from the significant number of people who have seen advertisements for several political parties on television.

Apart from that, Gerindra Party advertisements on television are among the most viewed (85% have seen Gerindra advertisements on television). Meanwhile, advertisements for the Democratic Party and Golkar are next in line. Based on the survey results, it seems that there is no positive correlation between the most watched advertisements and the electability of political parties. This is like what happened to the Gerindra Party which only obtained 4.46% of the national vote in the 2009 Legislative Election.

In the 2014 elections, the Hanura Party spent IDR70 Billion, but was only ranked 10th. Not much different from Hanura, in the 2019 elections, the Perindo Party, which was formed by the owner of the MNC Group media network, namely Hary Tanoesoedibjo, was the party that spent the most advertisement. However, the results only placed Perindo in 10th place and tragically it did not enter parliament. Therefore, high campaign advertising spending on television does not guarantee that a party will win the election or even pass the parliamentary threshold.

Political Analyst from Exposit Strategic Arif Susanto said that the effectiveness of political party advertising is at least influenced by several things. First, public introduction to political parties. New parties have a heavier burden to become known than established parties. Second, the suitability of the issue. The closer the issue raised is to voter preferences, the greater the party’s chances of gaining vote support. Third, creative advertising content. This is related to the ability to package messages according to the needs and interests of the target audience (katadata.co.id, 25/4/2019). Apart from these factors, the decreasing influence of advertising on television media is also due to the development of the use of social media as a campaign tool in Indonesia.

Influence of Social Media Development

The use of social media increases party competition. Small parties or new parties can use social media to increase their visibility. In many cases, small parties, which have limited resources, do not have influence, especially in elections. However, with social media being a cheap medium, and also more accessible than other communication technologies, they can compete with large parties who have stronger resources (Chadwick, 2006).

Social media allows small political parties to reach similar potential supporters as larger parties. If you look at the figures for social media users in Indonesia, based on data from We Are Social, it shows that the number of active social media users in Indonesia will be 167 million people in January 2023. This number is equivalent to 60.4% of the Indonesian population. Meanwhile, the number of internet users in Indonesia was recorded at 212.9 million in January 2023 ( https://dataindonesia.id , 3/2/2023).

Therefore, it is not surprising that political parties and candidates use social media as a campaign tool to reach their supporters. However, the use of social media in a campaign cannot fully result in candidates being elected if social media is used in a one-way method. This is due to the interaction factor between candidate accounts and social media users. Candidates who use social media interactively can bring candidates closer to their voters. It’s different if the candidate uses a one-way communication method. Even though candidates have accounts on a number of social media platforms and have a large number of followers, if communication is only carried out in one direction with voters, voters will not feel close to the candidate. This is contrary to the aim of the political campaign itself, namely to mobilize support for a candidate.

Joss Hands (2011), reminds us that having social media does not guarantee that its use will be in accordance with what the candidate wants. Using social media in one direction is like the old way of political campaigning, and ignores the true potential of social media. Apart from that, seen from the perspective of social media users, referring to the opinions of Herbert Blumer and Elihu Kartz in the theory of uses and satisfaction, it is said that social media users play an active role in choosing and using this media. In other words, social media users are active parties in the communication process. Social media users try to find the best sources in an effort to fulfill their needs. Social media users are no longer seen as passive people who only receive information. However, social media users are active and selective, and also critical of all information conveyed (Morrisan, 2014). So the use of social media as a political campaign tool is not necessarily accepted by social media users, if the information or message conveyed does not match the needs of social media users.

Challenges of Using Social Media as a Campaign Tool

The challenge of using social media as a campaign tool in Indonesia is due to the digital divide. The digital divide is because there is still a gap in telecommunications and internet access infrastructure. The World Bank (World Bank) said that the digital gap in internet access in Indonesia is still very wide, it is proven that as many as 49 percent of the adult population in Indonesia still do not have internet access (kompas.com, 29/7/2021).

According to data from the Indonesian Central Statistics Agency (BPS), most villages/sub-districts in Indonesia have not been touched by a telecommunications network transmitter tower or Base Transceiver Station (BTS). In 2020, for example, there will still be 46,486 or 55.3% of the total villages that do not yet have BTS towers. Java Island is the region with the most villages/districts receiving cellular signals compared to other regions in Indonesia. In 2020, BPS data shows that 99.86% of them have been touched by cellular telecommunications signals. Next followed by Sumatra (98.24%), Bali and Nusa Tenggara/Bali (97.54%, Sulawesi (95.4%), and Kalimantan (93.1) ( datanesia.id , 5/9/2022).

Because inequality is still high, campaigns using social media influence voters in urban areas more. Meanwhile, for voters in rural areas, the influence is still small. This is due to the lack of internet infrastructure in the area. This digital divide factor ultimately influences the use of social media as a candidate campaign tool. Candidates cannot reach voters in areas that do not have internet access. On the other hand, this also affects a voter’s access to information to be able to be involved in the wider public sphere in the general election campaign.

Recommendation

Political campaigns aim to mobilize support for political parties and the presidential and vice presidential candidates they support. Political parties and presidential and vice presidential candidates must use social media interactively to strengthen what already exists in conventional media such as the use of advertisements on television. The strategy of combining social media with television advertising makes political communication attractive from parties to voters, especially young elections. Moreover, looking at voters based on age in the 2024 elections, General Election Commission (KPU) data states that voters will be dominated by young voters, namely 56.45 percent of the total voters.

Based on the results of an opinion poll conducted by The Indonesian Institute, Center for Public Policy Research (TII) from 6 October to 31 October 2023, with 93 young respondents aged 17 to 30 years, the tendencies of young voters are: first, they want the campaign to be carried out with interactive model through face-to-face meetings or in forums on the internet or social media. Still based on the results of the questionnaire, the information needed by young people during this campaign is the track record, vision, mission and program of presidential and vice presidential candidates at 36.6 percent and the track record, vision, mission and program for legislative candidates at 21.5 percent.

Therefore, apart from just having a website and social media accounts, political parties and candidates should be able to use websites and social media interactively, so that they can get closer to potential voters. Political parties and presidential and vice presidential candidates need to be encouraged to provide good political campaigns, by providing information about the vision, mission and programs offered to young people in an interactive manner. This is also an opportunity for political parties to open up broad opportunities for young people to take part and participate in politics in a significant way.

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References

Book

Chadwick, Andrew. 2006. Internet Politics: States, Citizens, and New Communication Technologies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Daniel. Ahmad. 2009. TV Political Advertising: Modernization of Post-New Order Political Campaigns. Jogjakarta: LkiS.

Hands, Joss. 2011. @ is for Activism. London: Pluto Press.

Journal

Minanto, Ali. 2014. “Fashionable Democracy: The Banality of Political Advertising in Public Spaces”. Journal of Communicators, Vol. 6 No. November 2, 2014.

Morissan. 2014. “Social media and social participation among the younger generation”. Journal of Communication Vision, Volume 13, No. 01, May 2014.

Mustofa, Ali. 2013. “The Role of Mass Media as a Means of Political Advertising for Political Parties”. Interaction Journal, Vol II No. 1, January 2013.

Master’s Thesis

Andayani, Sri. 2002. Profile of political advertising broadcasts during the 1999 election campaign: a television media content analysis study of political advertising broadcasts of the three political parties with the largest number of votes (PDI Perjuangan, Golkar Party, and PKB). Masters thesis. Faculty of Social and Political Sciences University of Indonesia.

Pithaloka, Dyah. 2006. The Influence of Audience Cognitive Responses Through the 2004 Election Advertising Campaign on Television on Voters’ Decisions in Selecting Presidential and Vice Presidential Candidates in Maguwoharjo Village, Depok District, Sleman Regency, Yogyakarta Special Region Province. Masters thesis. Sebelas Maret University.